Chain · Solar photovoltaics

China ships most solar modules, Germany and the US most polysilicon (2024)

In 2024 China shipped 57% of solar modules and 44% of solar cells, while Germany (34%) and the United States (30%) led the exports of polysilicon.

7stages from ore to product
$94.5bnlargest stage, 2024: Static converters (incl. solar inverters)
HHI 0.35chokepoint, 2024: Solar modules
United States · GL 0.92most two-way stage, 2024: Wafers

YearFocus economy

The chain in 2024

Feedstock

Silicon metal

2804.69

$3.7bn · $2.6/kgCHN 43%

Use share ~30% · IEA, 2024 dataalso in Chips and electronics

S1 Quartz

Quartz

2506.10

$1.7bn · $0.49/kgUSA 45%

also in Chips and electronics

S2 Silicon metal

Feedstock

Silicon metal

2804.69

$3.7bn · $2.6/kgCHN 43%

Use share ~30% · IEA, 2024 dataalso in Chips and electronics

Feedstock only, joining from above

S3 Polysilicon

Polysilicon

2804.61

$3.5bn · $21.4/kgDEU 34%

Use share ~95% · IEA, 2024 dataalso in Chips and electronics

S4 Wafers

Wafers

3818.00

$18.3bn · $63.3/kgJPN 28%

Use share unknownalso in Chips and electronics

S5 Cells

Solar cells

8541.42 H6

$5.4bnCHN 44%

S6 Modules and inverters

Solar modules

8541.43 H68541.40 H5

$48.4bn · $2.8/kgCHN 57%

Chokepoint · HHI 0.35

Static converters (incl. solar inverters)

8504.40

$94.5bn · $42.2/kgCHN 38%

World trade and top exporter by stage, 2024; unit value where net weight covers at least 80% of value. Chokepoint: the stage worth at least $1bn with the highest exporter HHI, when above 0.25. Dashed: side inputs and feedstocks, which join from above. Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

Who trades each stage, 2024

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Size

Imports | ExportsHalf-disc area ∝ value; one scale for every year

Solar modules, 2024

World trade, 2024: $48.4bn

Top exporters, 2024

CHN 57%
VNM 13%
THA 6%
MYS 5%
IND 3%
Others 15%

Solar modules is the chain’s chokepoint in 2024: HHI 0.35, CHN 57% of exports.

The ring shows the stage of this chain the economy leads; a dashed rowan ring marks an economy with more than half of the stage’s exports. Click an economy to follow its flows (exports gold, imports teal).

Open in the explorer

Why do some economies both import and export the same stage?

Different goods under one code. A six-digit code can hold cheap and costly versions of a product: 2506.10 covers quartzite lumps and high-purity quartz worth many times more per kilogram.
Processing and hub trade. Goods come in, are refined or assembled, and go out again.
Firms and regions. Firms or regions within one economy buy and sell for their own reasons, such as a firm shipping inputs to its own plants abroad.
How trade is recorded. Under the mirror rule an economy’s imports may come from its own reports and its exports from its partners’; origin and consignment, re-exports and misclassification can make one side larger.

“↔ two-way” marks an economy whose Grubel–Lloyd index is at least 0.3 and whose exports and imports are each at least 2% of world trade in the stage. The sentences under a stage give the numbers, never the reason. How two-way trade is measured

S1 · Quartz

2506.10

World trade, 2024$1.7bn×2.8 vs 2019
Unit value, 2024$0.49/kg2019: $0.18/kg
Exporter concentration, 20240.25high · 2019: 0.13
123 exportersUSA 45%98% of value from importers’ reports

Top exporters, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world exports, %	2019, %
1	USA United States	44.7	22.2
2	NOR Norway	13.4	4.6
3	CHN China	13.0	17.6
4	IND India	12.2	13.3
5	ESP Spain	2.4	–

Top importers, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world imports, %	2019, %
1	CHN China	58.0	21.9
2	NOR Norway	9.2	6.8
3	JPN Japan	6.7	9.7
4	THA Thailand	5.4	–
5	GBR UK	2.2	–

China imports $957m and exports $215m of this stage. Imports average $1.1/kg, exports $0.35/kg. Main suppliers: United States, Norway, India. Main buyers: Thailand, UK, Vietnam.

Quartz, 2024: shares of world exports and imports. Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

Also in another chain

This stage also feeds Chips and electronics; where both chains use the same code, it is one network, shown in each.

Downstream · S2

Silicon metal$2.6/kg · CHN 43%

Show on map Cut a supplier

Exporter concentration (HHI), 1995–2025

Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

World trade, 12-month sum, by month

Source: UN Comtrade, monthly data, HS6; 12-month sum; one side per flow (the importer's report where it filed as many months). Korea, Jan–Jul 2026: Korea Customs Service, trade by item and country (data.go.kr), fetched 31 Oct 2026.

S2 · Silicon metalFeedstock

S2 · Silicon metal

2804.69

World trade, 2024$3.7bn×1.2 vs 2019
Unit value, 2024$2.6/kg2019: $2/kg
Exporter concentration, 20240.22moderate · 2019: 0.21
84 exportersCHN 43%96% of value from importers’ reports

Top exporters, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world exports, %	2019, %
1	CHN China	42.7	38.9
2	BRA Brazil	12.6	14.4
3	NOR Norway	12.6	17.6
4	FRA France	5.7	6.1
5	CAN Canada	3.6	–

Top importers, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world imports, %	2019, %
1	DEU Germany	15.8	16.8
2	USA United States	12.8	11.3
3	JPN Japan	10.5	11.7
4	THA Thailand	9.4	–
5	IND India	4.9	–

France imports $89m and exports $212m of this stage. Imports average $2.6/kg, exports $2.9/kg. Main suppliers: Norway, Netherlands, Germany. Main buyers: Germany, China, Italy.

Silicon metal, 2024: shares of world exports and imports. Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

Use share: how much of this stage goes to this chain

About 30% of silicon metal goes to solar-grade polysilicon (nearly a third). The map shows the whole flow, because that is what crossed the border; the trail draws 30% of it solid. Source: IEA, Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025, p. 186, data for 2024.

Also in another chain

This stage also feeds Chips and electronics; where both chains use the same code, it is one network, shown in each.

Upstream · S1

Quartz$0.49/kg · USA 45%

Downstream · S3

Polysilicon$21.4/kg · DEU 34%

Show on map Cut a supplier

Exporter concentration (HHI), 1995–2025

Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

World trade, 12-month sum, by month

S3 · Polysilicon

2804.61

World trade, 2024$3.5bn×1.1 vs 2019
Unit value, 2024$21.4/kg2019: $14/kg
Exporter concentration, 20240.23moderate · 2019: 0.19
56 exportersDEU 34%74% of value from importers’ reports

Top exporters, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world exports, %	2019, %
1	DEU Germany	34.0	25.9
2	USA United States	29.6	28.1
3	CHN China	11.7	–
4	MYS Malaysia	8.0	–
5	JPN Japan	7.3	11.8

Top importers, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world imports, %	2019, %
1	CHN China	25.5	41.1
2	VNM Vietnam	25.2	–
3	JPN Japan	18.1	21.9
4	KOR Korea	7.1	7.0
5	TWN Taiwan	5.3	9.6

China imports $890m and exports $409m of this stage. Imports average $22.1/kg, exports $10.3/kg. Main suppliers: Germany, Malaysia, Japan. Main buyers: Malaysia, Vietnam, Korea.

Polysilicon, 2024: shares of world exports and imports. Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

What trade cannot see here

China makes most of the world's polysilicon and uses it at home, so trade shows the surplus of other makers.

Use share: how much of this stage goes to this chain

About 95% of high-purity silicon (polysilicon) demand is for solar PV, by tonnage. The map shows the whole flow, because that is what crossed the border; the trail draws 95% of it solid. Source: IEA, Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025, p. 186, data for 2024.

Also in another chain

This stage also feeds Chips and electronics; where both chains use the same code, it is one network, shown in each.

Upstream · S2

Silicon metal$2.6/kg · CHN 43%

Downstream · S4

Wafers$63.3/kg · JPN 28%

Show on map Cut a supplier

Exporter concentration (HHI), 1995–2025

The chain’s chokepoint in 2005, 2006.

Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

World trade, 12-month sum, by month

S4 · Wafers

3818.00

World trade, 2024$18.3bn×1.2 vs 2019
Unit value, 2024$63.3/kg2019: $27.2/kg
Exporter concentration, 20240.16moderate · 2019: 0.16
86 exportersJPN 28%98% of value from importers’ reports

Top exporters, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world exports, %	2019, %
1	JPN Japan	28.5	29.7
2	CHN China	22.6	16.8
3	USA United States	9.9	8.9
4	TWN Taiwan	7.8	14.2
5	KOR Korea	6.4	6.6

Top importers, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world imports, %	2019, %
1	TWN Taiwan	16.2	16.0
2	KOR Korea	14.2	14.5
3	CHN China	13.7	13.2
4	USA United States	8.5	10.6
5	SGP Singapore	7.4	10.2

China imports $2.5bn and exports $4.1bn of this stage. Imports average $437.4/kg, exports $21.3/kg. Main suppliers: Japan, Korea, United States. Main buyers: Korea, Thailand, Taiwan.

Wafers, 2024: shares of world exports and imports. Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

Use share: how much of this stage goes to this chain

The share of doped wafers (3818) that are solar wafers: no free source; the layer splits by unit-value band. The map shows the whole flow; the trail draws it in grey only.

Also in another chain

This stage also feeds Chips and electronics; where both chains use the same code, it is one network, shown in each.

Upstream · S3

Polysilicon$21.4/kg · DEU 34%

Downstream · S5

Solar cellsCHN 44%

Show on map Cut a supplier

Exporter concentration (HHI), 1995–2025

Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

World trade, 12-month sum, by month

S5 · Cells

S5 · Solar cells

8541.42 H6

World trade, 2024$5.4bn
Unit value, 2024–hidden: weight covers 29% of value
Exporter concentration, 20240.25moderate
101 exportersCHN 44%95% of value from importers’ reports

Top exporters, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world exports, %
1	CHN China	44.2
2	THA Thailand	13.1
3	MYS Malaysia	12.7
4	KOR Korea	11.2
5	VNM Vietnam	5.9

Top importers, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world imports, %
1	USA United States	35.3
2	IND India	28.6
3	TUR Türkiye	8.4
4	VNM Vietnam	3.2
5	NGA Nigeria	3.0

Korea imports $114m and exports $604m of this stage. Main suppliers: China, Taiwan, Thailand. Main buyers: United States, Hong Kong, Japan.

Solar cells, 2024: shares of world exports and imports. Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

What trade cannot see here

Split out in HS2022; before that cells, modules and LEDs shared 8541.40.

HS version split in 2022

Before 2022 this stage had no code of its own, so its series starts with the HS2022 files.

Upstream · S4

Wafers$63.3/kg · JPN 28%

Downstream · S6

Solar modules$2.8/kg · CHN 57%

Show on map Cut a supplier

Exporter concentration (HHI), 1995–2025

Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

World trade, 12-month sum, by month

S6 · Modules and invertersChokepoint

S6 · Solar modules

8541.43 H68541.40 H5

World trade, 2024$48.4bn×0.9 vs 2019
Unit value, 2024$2.8/kg
Exporter concentration, 20240.35high · 2019: 0.21
155 exportersCHN 57%98% of value from importers’ reports

Top exporters, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world exports, %	2019, %
1	CHN China	57.3	41.5
2	VNM Vietnam	13.0	–
3	THA Thailand	6.5	–
4	MYS Malaysia	4.7	12.4
5	IND India	3.4	–

Top importers, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world imports, %	2019, %
1	USA United States	31.4	15.3
2	BRA Brazil	5.9	–
3	IND India	5.9	–
4	PAK Pakistan	4.5	–
5	DEU Germany	4.1	–

India imports $2.9bn and exports $1.6bn of this stage. Imports average $2.9/kg, exports $2.9/kg. Main suppliers: China, Vietnam, Malaysia. Main buyers: United States, Bangladesh, Nigeria.

Solar modules, 2024: shares of world exports and imports. Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

What trade cannot see here

Before HS2022 this is 8541.40, which also holds cells and LEDs.

HS version split in 2022

Before 2022 solar cells, modules and LEDs share 8541.40. Files in HS2017 or older are read through 8541.40, so the years before 2022 join them with this stage; from 2022 the stage reads 8541.43.

Upstream · S5

Solar cellsCHN 44%

Show on map Cut a supplier

Exporter concentration (HHI), 1995–2025

The chain’s chokepoint in 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025.

Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

World trade, 12-month sum, by month

S6 · Modules and inverters

S6 · Static converters (incl. solar inverters)

8504.40

World trade, 2024$94.5bn×1.6 vs 2019
Unit value, 2024$42.2/kg2019: $33.1/kg
Exporter concentration, 20240.16moderate · 2019: 0.17
226 exportersCHN 38%96% of value from importers’ reports

Top exporters, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world exports, %	2019, %
1	CHN China	37.5	39.1
2	DEU Germany	7.2	8.4
3	THA Thailand	4.9	–
4	USA United States	4.3	5.3
5	JPN Japan	4.2	5.3

Top importers, 2024

#	Economy	Share of world imports, %	2019, %
1	USA United States	18.5	17.1
2	DEU Germany	9.0	7.2
3	CHN China	5.3	8.1
4	MEX Mexico	4.3	4.2
5	NLD Netherlands	4.0	–

United States imports $17.4bn and exports $4.1bn of this stage. Main suppliers: China, Mexico, Thailand. Main buyers: Mexico, Canada, China.

Static converters (incl. solar inverters), 2024: shares of world exports and imports. Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

What trade cannot see here

Broad code (chargers, power supplies, inverters); a side product of the chain.

Show on map Cut a supplier

Exporter concentration (HHI), 1995–2025

Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule.

World trade, 12-month sum, by month

How these numbers are made

Each chain has its own ladder of stages, one rung per step of production that customs records can see: four for clothing, eight for chips. Each stage is a set of six-digit HS codes, written down once with the rung it sits on and what else its code holds. World trade is the sum of bilateral flows under the mirror rule: the importer’s report where the importer reported that year, otherwise the exporter’s. Unit value is value over net weight, shown only where weight covers at least 80% of value. HHI is the sum of squared exporter shares; 0.15 and 0.25 mark moderate and high concentration.

Customs records see goods crossing a border, not what they were for. Production used at home, codes that hold two products and codes split by HS versions are named at the stage where they matter. Use shares, where a stage mostly goes elsewhere, come from dated sources outside trade; they scale the trail, never the map. The full method

Source: UN Comtrade, Final data, HS6; mirror rule. Updated 2 Nov 2026.